| محتوای صفحه | متن کامل ارسالی |
| عنوان درخواست: | Investigating Nominalization in Arabic and English |
| نشانی الکترونیکی فرستنده: | zahrasalman.mousa.1360@gmail.com |
| تاریخ ارسال: | 1400/11/19 |
| تعداد کلمات: | 18399 |
| درصد شباهت: | 3% |
| 1Introduction This study examines the functions of nominalization categories in introduction sections of the Arabic and contrastively manipulated with English ones. In Arabic, there are two types of nominalization: explicit nominalization categories and interpreted like verbal nouns. There are differences between these two types of nominalization regarding their configurations, usages and functions. This study also aims at examining the various functions of nominalization and comparing them with those arrived at in the English studies. As far as English is concerned, there are plethora of studies that examine the notion of nominalization. Statement of the problem and the purpose The process of nominalization is highly prevalent in academic discourse. This study will shed light on the use of nominalization in Arabic academic research articles with a parallel reference to those utilizing nominalization in English research articles. The study will examine nominalization use in the introduction sections of the Arabic and English research articles. Arabic as a rich morphological language differs from English in a variety of ways, a case which signifies important findings. Arabic is a language that includes sentences called nominal sentences. Thus, the proposed study will deal with cross-linguistic analysis of nominalization as an aspect that has hardly been explored in previous research. Contrary to a host of studies of nominalization use in English, the study of nominalization in research articles (RAs) introductions in Arabic has not been in the limelight of research It is unfortunate to say that we know very little about the distribution and the patterns of nominalization use in RA introductions, and this calls for further research on nominalized expressions in RAs'' (Jalilifar, Saleh & Don , 2017). Research questions This study attempts to provide answers for the following questions:: 1. Is there any difference between Introduction sections of linguistics RAs in Arabic and English in terms of the frequency of nominalization use? 2. What nominalization patterns are used in the Introduction sections of linguistics RAs in Arabic and English? 3. Can the use of nominal expressions determine the way that knowledge is claimed in Introduction? 1.5 Design of the study In the present study, an analysis will be done on introduction sections of Arabic and English research articles in terms of use and frequency of nominalization. The method of analysis will be top-down, applying macro-structure models by Halliday and Matthiessen (2004). The approach embedded for analysis will be eclectic, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative analyses. 1.6 Significance of the study The findings of the previous and the present study will do good in the process and product of academic writing. This study is hoped to add a lot to the pathways of examining nominalization in research articles. The significance of the present study lies in the fact that it adds to the notion of nominalization in Arabic discourse due to the paucity of such studies. It also attempts to determine whether there are any differences between Arabic and English with respect to the use of nominalization. Since it is across two languages, the findings of this study will do good in the field of translation. Following previous research, the researcher can tentatively predict that there should be some differences holding between the two languages in the use of nominalization. Thus, this study is significant as it extends the boundaries of contrastive rhetoric. The results of this study will enhance our knowledge of academic writing in Arabic and thus implications can be drawn from the study to improve pedagogy. This study will add to the understanding of the behavior of the process of nominalization especially in the formation and its pragmatics. 1.7 Organization of the study This study comprises five chapters. Chapter one incapsulates the introduction, notion of nominalization, statement of problem and purpose, research question, design of study, significance of study and organization of study. Chapter two includes the literature review, academic writing, grammatical metaphors, nominalization in English and Arabic, and how to form the Arabic verbal noun and patterns of nominalization. Chapter three explores methodology, data, the analytical framwork, procedure and data analysis.In chapter four, the researcher presents the analysis of the nominalization in Arabic and English according to qualitative and quantitative approaches. Chapter five includes the conclusions, limitations of the study, implications of the study and suggestions for further research.. This study closes with references followed by two appendices. 2.1 Introduction As a genre in itself, academic writing is believed to be an area of language study that has its own conventions of structure, vocabulary and content organization. The basic aim behind this style of writing is to widen the scope of knowledge in a given domain or discipline. Disciplines differ in terms of their own writing conventions, vocabulary and types of discourse that characterize them. Compared to general writing, academic writing can be distinguished via its features including being planned and focused, structured, formal, supported topics, and an intended audience. The targeted audience can include researchers, scholars, reviewers, or students who attach themselves to that discipline. One of the examples of academic writing is research articles. This study is confined to the realm of research articles written in Arabic and English and the goal is to examine the features of nominalization in both languages. In other words, academic writing has various tools that are adopted to highlight certain goals. One of these significant and effective tools is what is called grammatical metaphor', which was coined by Halliday (2000). The idea behind grammatical metaphor, according to Halliday, is that certain ideas are conveyed through dressing them with a different grammatical form. For instance, verbs can be transformed into nouns, a case which results in a variation in the shaping of a new meaning. As far as grammatical metaphor is concerned, it has different categories. One of these categories is called 'nominalization'. Nominalization is the act of naming entities. In academic writing, this notion has its scope widened through acquiring different shades of meaning. That is, nominalization is used to convey a variety of functions in order to achieve certain goals. As for the process of nominalization, it refers to "instances in which noun phrases replace subject predicate constructions thereby turning actions into things (Roe & de Ouden, 2018, p. 287). In Arabic, the process of transforming verbal categories into nominal has taken different routes, a case which makes its functions varied. According to Halliday (2000), the process of nominalization is the most powerful resource for creating grammatical metaphor and this process reflects profound meanings in given contexts. In functional linguistics, the focus on the process of nominalization is exerted via reflecting upon both structure and context. In fact, context is the hub of revealing the given intention of writers and speakers. According to Bussmann (2001), nominalization is defined as a process which involves the creative formation of words of different parts of speech that can be turned into nouns. Similarly, Biber, Conrad, and Reppen (1998) showed that nominalizing words can be achieved from adding suffixes to verbs and adjectives. These definitions are restricted to the lexical level, but Halliday widened the scope of nominalization to include the syntactic level in the sense that a nominalization process functions as a noun group (Hu, 1989). To Halliday, the nominalization process can be represented through the ideational meaning, which puts nominalization within the area of ideational metaphor. In the linguistic literature, academic writing is characterized by the use of "full forms, nominal groups, passive voice, concise vocabulary, objective and impersonal&" styles (Hamp-Lyons & Heasley, 2006, p.20). Research on academic writing, particularly in English, has demonstrated academic English to be highly nominalized. However, in regard to academic writing in Arabic, little if any research has been documented. Given the paucity of research in this area, this study aims to examine the types and functions of nominalization categories in Arabic and English research articles in applied linguistics. Thus, it can be concluded that the notion of nominalization is a common linguistics phenomenon in academic writing. In academic writing, nominalized is used both to covey abstract and concrete thing. Academic writing Academic writing can be viewed as the fulcrum upon which a variety of scholarly aspects rely. It is a process which represents the hub of academic performances and success; a process that reflects the "proactive positioning of [the writer's] academic voice" (Murray & Moore, 2006, p. 4). In addition, academic writing is one of those steps of the academic research process through which scientists report situations of thinking, experience, observation, application, testing. Basically this is carried out to arrive at the solution of a scientific problem or an academic one. In addition to following the genre rules of text genre, in academic writing all principles are considered while reporting an academic research and process of textualizing it" (Bahar,2014, p.213). Academic writings are ''written and printed'' report (Day.2005.p.4) that describe '' original research result'', '' with a strongly structural intellectual system'' (Bayat, 2014, p. 157). This system requires '' Logic, clarity, truth'' (Aceto, 2003, p.8). There should be an understanding of the construction of texts by writers who try to find a suitable way of interacting with their readers. In other words, academic writing is an iterative and continuous process amalgamating "reflection, improvement, development, progress and fulfilment of various types and in varying measures"(Murray & Moore, 2006, p. 7). This can be achieved via exploring discourse studies focusing on academic writing and discourse. Lots of studies in discourse analysis has been conducted in the field of academic genre. A considerable amount of this research, following in the tradition of Swales (1990) and Bhatia (1993) has focused on schematic structure and the sequential patterning of communicative acts within genres into moves and steps. There is a plethora of studies in this regard such as (Paltridge, 2007). More recently, research has started to investigate the potential relationship between moves and steps and their typical lexico-grammatical realization (Flowerdew, 1998; Upton & Connor, 2001). Such matters are highly related to studies in genre analysis. In addition, such matters can be utilized to fulfil certain objectives. Academic writing is a process used in the academic domains so as to achieve certain academic goals. Murray and Moore (2006) identified other important characteristics in academic writing: interactivity and iterativity which represent important and motivating aspects of academic writing. These two features spur writers on to construct their own texts according to the conventions of the genre in which they are expressing their own ideas and claims. What is important is the fact that academic writing is characterized by its objective, impersonal, concise, and relevant style. Another important feature is that writing should '' produce logical structure idea with well-though out, verified point and consider different opinion'' (Gillet, Hammond & Martah,2004, p.88). That is to say, academic writing should be objective through utilizing an academic style. For example, academics opt for using hedges which help employing an objective point of view (Monippally & Pawar, 2010, p.77). In addition, the grammatical structure in academic writing is highly complex in the sense that the sentences used in a given text are dense and structurally complex. Grammatical metaphor Grammatical metaphor (GM hereafter) is a term which was proposed by Halliday (1985a). in fact, GM is one of the most important features of academic and scientific discourse. It represents one of the crucial contributions of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL hereafter). In this study, the semantic model presented in Halliday and Matthiessen (2004)) will be adopted. Halliday & Matthiessen (1999, p. 238) has identified the congruent and metaphorical realization of semantic categories in grammar in the sense that When a sequence is realized as a clause complex, or a process as a verb, this is congruent: it is the clause complex, and the verb, in the function in which it evolved. When a sequence is realized as something other than a clause complex, or a process as something other than a verb, this is metaphorical. Some other grammatical unit is supplanting them in these functions. The linguist Halliday is considered the first scholar who introduces the concept of nominalization examining different perspectives. Halliday (1994) has analyzed nominalization within academic and particularly scientific texts. Eggins (1994, p. 94) defines ''nominalization is a process turning things that are not normally noun into noun, with consequences for another part of sentences''. Warnock's expression (2003, p. 140) '' every nominalization is holding a verb beneath the surface''. In English grammar, nominalization is a type of word formation in which a verb or an adjective (or another part of speech) is used as (or transformed into) a noun. This process can also be referred to as 'nouning'. In transformational grammar, nominalization refers to the derivation of a noun phrase from an underlying clause. In this sense, an "example of nominalization is the destruction of the city, where the noun destruction corresponds to the main verb of a clause and the city to its object&" (Leech,2006)". The process of nominalization has some rules such as supporting cohesion of a text. 1. Nominalized language deals with the conciseness. Packing information into a noun group leaves the rest of the clause available for adding new information. 2. It is much easier and practical to start a clause or a sentence with a noun group rather than with a verb group. 3. nominalization is an implement which helps scientists to treat processes as if they were things. It reflects science’s concern with categorizing, labelling, and describing phenomena and is a crucial thing in scientific discourse. The last type of nominalization is derived from verbs, but according to morphologically is not alike. It is adding suffixes. These suffixes are common in English. Such suffixes are added to verbs in order to form verb-based nominalizations: 1. age (e.g. to pass → passage); 2. al (e.g. to remove → removal); 3. ance/ -ence (e.g. to assist → assistance; to exist → existence); 4. er/-or (e.g. to read → reader); 5. (e)ry (e.g. to discover → discovery); 6. ion/ -sion/ -tion/ -ation (e.g. to confess → confession; to identify → identification); 7. -ing (e.g. to walk → walking); 8. -ment (e.g. to excite → excitement); 9. -sis (e.g. to analyze → analysis); 10. -th (e.g. to grow → growth); 11. -ure (e.g. to fail → failure The studies that focused on nominalization have examined it through its use, frequency, utilization in some sections of research articles. To the best of the researcher's knowledge and via examining the most influential studies on nominalization, all of these studies have focused on this notion in terms of grammatical metaphor. What distinguishes this study is that it examines the role of sentence and/ or clause type in the process of nominalization. In addition, few studies have examined finiteness and nominalization, a case which is highlighted in this study. 1. Semantically, gerunds are verbs by form and nominal by position 2. Verbal nouns are abstract noncount nouns with one form and one meaning. They are nouns by form and nominal by position. 3. Deverbal nouns are considered autonomous common In academic contexts, language is used to display information using technical lexicon, and with an authoritative stance (Martin, 1993; Schleppegrell, 2004). He analyzed each instance of nominalization which was counted and classified based on the four types of nominalizations enumerated by Halliday and Matthiessen (1999). This study is based on three phase data sets (1) identification, quantification, and classification of nominalization (2) identification, quantification, and classification of patterns of the nominal groups (3) exploring the nature and functionality of the dominant patterns of nominal groups. The first phase is based on four types of nominalization enumerated by Halliday and Mattissen (1999). For example, nominalization is derived from adjective by suffixes such as ending ity and ness, second one nominalization derived from verbs by suffixes age, -al, -(e)ry, -ion\-tion, -ment, - sis, - ure and th. The third type is the nominalization which has zero derivations from their corresponding adjectives, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions (adjective e.g. unstable into instability…verb (transform) derived as transformation ... circumstance (with) deriving into accompaniment…. The large lexical database and syntactically annotated corpora will be shown by this study and can complement with fruitfully in research into syntactic feature which is not easily extracted from corpora. The study depends on research question: Are there significant quantitative differences in the used nominalization across Chinese and British media English? The study shows significant by data and many previous studies which is used in this study. That is to say, the quantitative data shows that are significant in the used nominalization across these two English varieties. In addition, that many studies describe the significant of used nominalization in English. As investigated by Chef (1982), nominalization can be used in formal written and informal spoken and describe that written language occurs 11 times than spoken language. Biber (1986) investigates the nominalization instances in words ending with (-tion ment ness and ity). Interpreted by nominalization processes, this '' marks a highly abstract, nominal content and highly learned style' (Biber,1986: 395). 1. These where the verb and noun maintain the same form, also called non-zero derived de-verbal noun (e.g. to plan plan) 2. Gerunds (e.g. to run running) 3. Adding a suffix to the verb (e.g. to engage engagement) 4. These from adjective (beautiful beauty) 5. When the verb and noun have a different meaning (e.g. to birth birthday) A verbal noun in Arabic resembles a verb in its action and has no time reference. It takes different names in parsing (according to the structure of a sentence). The cognate object is one of them. The cognate object is a verbal noun that is mentioned after its verb either to emphasize its meaning, to show its number, to show its kind, or to substitute the pronunciation of its verb. In a cross linguistic study on nominalization across Arabic and French, Tayalati and Van de Velde (2014) adopted the framework of Lexical Conceptual Structure (Jackendoff, 1983, 1990; Levin, 1993 ). They studied the nominals that trigger the event meanings. Such event meaning nominals are related to their verbal bases. They worked on the two types of Arabic nominal groups according to their transitive and intransitive verbal roots. Sometimes, the nominal groups retain their verbal force through their impact upon their external and internal arguments. Such nominalizations are basically taken from accusative verbs such as / mäta / (die) and /ŝä'a / (spread). As an illustrative example, they provided some examples as in the following: (قصف المدینه من طرف العدو) (qasf l-madinati min tarfil- 'aduwwi) (the bombing of the city by the enemy) They labelled such type of nominalization as unaccomplished nominalization that has an idiosyncratic feature. This feature is that this nominal group cannot be modified by an adjective but by an adverb as in the following example: (قصف المدینه بشراسه) (qasfu l madinati bi-ŝaräsitin) (the bombing of the city ferociously) A verbal noun or what is called Masdar is a very important derivative in Arabic grammar. It is a noun that is taken from a verb in order to refer to the action or activity implied in the verb. Such derivative nominalization instances can be used in similar contexts to the use of those instances in English. Take the following examples: 1. (أحب السباحه) /uhibu il-sibaahata/ (I like swimming) 2. (هوایتی المفضله هی القراءه) /hiwaayeti il-mufadhala hiya il- qiraa'a/ (My favorite hobby is reading) Verb forms are extremely important for the formation of verbal nouns. In Arabic, verbs have forms patterned as Verb form I, II, III, etc. Verbal nouns from form (II X) follow certain patterns in order to construct verbal nouns. However, there is no rule for deriving verbal nouns from form I. In spite of the absence of such a rule indicating a verbal noun from form I, there are some patterns that are common in this form. Consider the following instances: 1. The pattern (فعل) /fa'ala/, e.g. (عَمَل) /'amal/ “working”, (جَمْع) /jama'/ “collecting”, (زَرْع) /zara'/ “growing”, (فَتْح) /fatH/ “opening” 2. The pattern (فِعاله) / fi'aala/ , e.g. (دراسه) “studying”, (تجاره) “commerce”, (قراءه) “reading”, (کتابه) “writing” 3. The pattern (فعال) /fa'aal/ , e.g. (نجاح) /najaaH/ “success”, (ذهاب) /ðahaab/ “going” 4. The pattern (فَعیل) /fa'eel/, e.g. (رحیل) /raheel/ “leaving”, (بریق) /bareeq/ “glimmering” 5. The pattern (فعوله) /fa'ula/, e.g. (سهوله) /sahula/ “ease”, (صعوبه) /su'uuba/ “difficulty” These are only few of the patterns that can be used to make verbal nouns from form I verbs. Sometimes, there could be more than one verbal noun from the same verb. There are usually some differences between them in meaning or usage or both, e.g. from (صَنَع) which means “to make”, we have 2 verbal nouns (صِناعه) which means “industry” and (صُنْع) which means “making”; and from (زَرَع) which means “to plant”, we have 2 verbal nouns (زِراعه) which means “agriculture” and (زَرْع) which means “planting”. Another type of Masdar in Arabic is called /al-masdar al-mimy/ (a verbal noun prefixed by m-/. This /m-/ exerts a change in the length of the lexical item to which it is prefixed. In fact, this type has more rhythm and melody than the original one. For example, from the verb (سأل) (sa'ala/ (to ask), there are two forms of its masdar: (سؤال) /su'aal/ (question) and (مسأله) (question or problem). In addition, this masdar mimy can show a stronger meaning and thus strengthen the illocutionary force of the original masdar. Another function of masdar mimy is to reflect a kind of exaggeration on the part of the action intended. If a nominalization is fully accomplished, it means it loses its dominance over the arguments. Guillen Galve (1998, p. 369) points out "GM [grammatical metaphor] operates primarily by turning clauses into nouns …. [where GM] applies in general to any instance of lexicogrammatical transference". Lexical cohesion can be achieved via grammatical metaphor which can be created by the process of nominalization which is "the single most powerful resource for creating grammatical metaphor&" (Halliday, 1994, p. 352). Another important function of nominalization is that lexical density can be realized via nominalization (Guillen Galve ,1998, p. 366). This study aims at investigating nominalization in Arabic research articles and it also attempts to contrast the functions of nominalization across Arabic and English. Fakhri (2012) investigates the functions of nominalization in Arabic discourse with a particular focus on legal genres. Arent (1998) examined in their research (nominalization in Discourse A gene analysis perspective). He shows his idea in Arabic discourse and focused on legal genre. He also defined nominalization is '' process via which a finite verbal clause .is convert into a noun phrase '' (Givon, 2004). For example, these sentence clarify idea (she knows mathematics extensively) when turn it to noun phrase (her extensive knowledge of mathematics). This study related with two phases: first, it expands the scope of the still relatively limited research on Arabic discourse by building on few studies on Arabic genre. Second, by exploring novel data from Arabic legal genre. Bhatia (1992,1993) discusses of used nominalization in discourse and '' how nominalizations are frequent in legislative discourse because they help achieve a high degree of conciseness for the formulation of comprehensive legal rules''. Thus, use frequent of nominalization in text may be integrated into complex structure. Out of the samples studied, lots of scholars focus on the formation of the Arabic verbal noun. The first major way of forming a verbal noun is through the three - tier verb, i.e. a verb which consists of three letters Al- Samarra'i (2007). In Arabic, there are patterns for the three tier verb. All the patterns have the form / fin'l / (فعلverb) but with different pronunciations due to different vowels added to this form. For example, the pattern / fa'ala / (فعَلَ) which can be transitive as in (ضرَبَ زیدٌ خالداً) /Daraba zaidun xalidan / (Zaid hit Khalid) Some three-tier verbs which refer to an occupation have their verbal noun in the form /fi'aalah/. For example, the verb / tajara/ (make trade) has its verbal noun as /tijaarah/ (trade). Some verbs denote a change or disturbance; such verbs have their verbal nouns as /fa'alaan/. For example, the verb /ĝala / (boil) becomes / ĝalayaan / (boiling). In addition, there are verbs that show an illness, which have their verbal nouns in the form of / fu'aal/ as in /sa'ala/ which becomes /su'aal/. In this regard, viz. three-tier verbs, some denote a sound where their verbal noun has the form of /fa'eel / and / fu'aal/. For instance, the verb /ṣahala / (neigh) becomes / ṣaheel / (neighing) and the verb /ṣaraxa/ (scream) becomes /ṣuraax / (screaming). There are three tier verbs that denote a deficit and have their verbal nouns as / fa'al / such as / 'arija / (limp) which becomes /'raj / (limping). Those verbs denoting colour have their verbal nouns as /fu'lah/ such as the verb /hamira / (became red) whose verbal noun is /humrah/ (redness). There are transitive verbs having the forms of /fa'ala / and /fa'ilah /: these verbs have their verbal nouns as /f'l /. For example, the verb /'axaða / (took) becomes /'xð/ (taking). Another example is the verb /ta'iba/ (became tired) whose verbal noun is /ta'b / (tiredness). There are other patterns concerning the formation of verbal nouns out of three tier verbs. For instance, three tier verbs in the form of / fa'ala / can have their verbal nouns as /fu'ool/ such as /qa'ada/ (sat) which becomes / qu'ood/ (sitting). Sometimes, such verbs have their middle sound a vowel one; in such a case the verbal noun becomes in the form of / fi'aal / as in the verb /ṣaama / (fasted) whose verbal noun is / ṣiyaam / (fasting). Intransitive three tier verbs of the form /fa'ula / generally have their verbal nouns in the patterns / fa'aala / and / fu'oola /. For example, the intransitive verb / ŝaju'a / (man up) has its verbal noun as / ŝujaa'a / (bravery). Another example having the second pattern is the verb /sahula / (became easy) has its verbal noun as / suhoola/ (easiness). All Arabic verbs that are not trilateral are regular, unlike the three tier verbs which can have irregular verbs. Quadrilateral verbs in the form / fa'lala / have their verbal nouns as / fa'llala / such as the verb / dahraja/ (roll) whose verbal noun is / dahraja / (rolling). Another pattern is when the middle sound is geminated as in the verb /zalzala / (shook) whose verbal noun is / zalzalah / (lit. earthquake) or / zilzaal /. Some three-tier verbs are introduced by the letter / alif / or Hamza. These verbs have their verbal nouns in the form of /'if'aal /. An example is the verb /axraja / (send out) becomes as a verbal noun as /'ixraaj/ (sending out). There are other rules regarding three-tier verbs that have their middle letter geminated. Such verbs have the form / fa''al/ and their verbal nouns have the form /taf'eel/. An example is the verb /qaddas/ (made sacred) and the verbal noun is /taqdees/ (sacredness). If such verbs end in a vowel, their verbal noun has the form /taf'ila / as in /rabba/ (raise up) whose verbal noun is /tarbiyyah/ (raising up). These are the basic rules concerning the most recurrent patterns of the Arabic verbs. There are verbs that consist of five and six letters. These also have their own rules for the formation of their verbal nouns. In Arabic, a verbal noun functions on behalf of its deleted verb, a case where the verbal noun assumes the role of its deleted verb. For example, if one says the following: (صبرا یا اخی ) (Sabran yaa 'xi) (Be patient my brother) In this example, the verbal noun / Sabran/ (Being patient) functions just like its verb, which is here interpreted as an imperative verb (Be patient). Syntactically, this verbal noun can be parsed as a Cognate object taking into consideration its deleted verb (Be patient). There is a test in Arabic through which one can know whether a verbal noun can function instead of its verb or not. This test is through using the infinitival particle /'an / which precedes the present simple verb. Let's take the following illustrative example: (یسرّنی فهمک الدرسَ) / yasurrani fahmuka l-darsa/ (Your understanding of the lesson pleases me) The verbal noun in this example is / fahmuk / (your understanding), which can be replaced by the particle /'an/ and the present simple verb. Thus, one can get the following: (یسرّنی أن تفهم الدرسَ) / yasarrunai 'anka tafham l-darsa/ (I am pleased that you understand the lesson) In the version containing the verbal noun, the noun /l-dars/ (the lesson) is syntactically considered as the object of the verbal noun, which is a kind of nominalization in Arabic. One can recognize that Arabic nominalization instances have a verbal force: in this case it assumes the role of a transitive verb that requires an object. However, there are constraints that hinder this function in Arabic verbal nouns. For instance, if the singularity (-t) is annexed to the verbal noun, such a verbal noun cannot function as its verb. Take the following example: (سرّتنی سفرتک الریاض) / sarratni safratuka l-riyaD / (Your travel for Riyadh pleased me) The singularity morpheme (-t) is annexed to verbal noun / safar / (travel), a case which prohibits its functioning instead of its verb. Another case in which a verbal noun loses its verbal force is when it is modified by an adjective. An illustrative example is the following: (سرّنی إکرامک العظیمُ خالدا) / sarrani 'ikraamuka l-'aDeemu xaalidan / (Your great rewarding for Khalid pleased me) Here, the verbal noun does not work, but if the adjective is retained after the object (Khalid), in this case it reassumes its verbal function. One of the most recurrent cases in which the Arabic verbal noun works is when the verbal noun goes in a Construct relationship with its subject. Consider the following example: (سرّنی فهم زهیر الدرس) / sarrani fihm zuhair l-darsa/ (Zuhair's understanding of the lesson pleased me) Here, the verbal noun / fihm/ (understanding) is in a Construct relationship with its subject (Zuhair). On the surface structure of this sentence, the subject (Zuhair) is in the genitive case because it is the second part of the Construct: it is added to the verbal noun / fihm / preceding it. On the deep level, this subject is nominative to assume the role of the subject. Arabic is a language that has two basic word orders. It has two sentence types; verbal and nominal. One of the characteristics of a verbal noun in Arabic is that even in nominal clauses it can function. In the following example: (إعطاءٌ فقیرًا کوساءً صدقه ) / 'eTaa'u faqeeran kisaa'an ṣadaqatun / (Giving a poor man a garment is a charity) the verbal noun / 'etaa' / is the Theme, i.e. the initial NP. Here, it takes two objects: / faqeer / (poor) and / kisaa' / (garment). So, even in nominal clauses a verbal noun in Arabic can have a verbal force. In Arabic, as shown by AL Samaria (2007, pp. 142-144), one of the functions of a verbal noun (Masdar) is to reflect the meaning of an imperative. Consider the following: 1. صبراً جمیلاً / Sabran jameelan / (lit. a beautiful patience) (Be patient beautifully) In this example, the meaning of the verbal noun صبراً) ) (Patience) is to give an order or a suggestion or advice to the addressee to be patient. Sometimes, in Arabic, one can use an explicit imperative verb taken from the verbal noun used. This example can be rephrased as: 2. اصبر صبراً جمیلاً ('isbir Sabran jameelan) (lit. Be patient with a beautiful patience) However, the meaning here differs in the sense that the verbal noun (صبراً) /Sabran/ (Patience) functions as an emphatic. In (4), the meaning of the verbal noun is show invocation. It assumes the role of its deleted verb, which in the imperative verb (AL- Samarra'a, 2007, P. 143). Discussing the functions an Arabic verbal noun, (AL- Samarra'a, 2007, pp.149-151) show that verbal nouns in Arabic can be used to reflect similarities or exemplification. Take the following example: 3. له صراخ صراخ الثکلی (lahu suraaxun il-ɵakla) (lit. He has screams like screams of a vilomah) So, here, it is evident that a verbal noun reflects the role of a simile. Item for the imperative verb (اصبر) ('isber) (be patient), which has the same root as its verbal noun (Al-Samarra'i, 2007, P .143). Such instance where one can use the imperative verb or root can be seen in expressions of invocation or supplication. Both cases can be used, with an imperative verb or without. Consider the following example: 4. (رعاک الله رعیاً) (ra'aaka al-laha ra'yyan) (lit. May God take care of you caringly) (May God support you) It is also possible to use the verbal noun only, saying: 5. رعیاً)) (ra'yyan) (lit. caringly) (May God support you) This type of Masdar (verbal noun) is called al-tashbihi (a verbal noun of similarities). It is important to show that this masdar which is in the accusative case reflects the fact that the action represented is done at the same time of the action represented by the verb. An illustrative example is the following: 6. له بکاء بکاء الثکلی)) (lahu bukaa'un bukaa'a il-ɵakla) (He cries like a vilomah) Here, the meaning is that you met him while he was crying like a vilomah. That is, the referent was crying bitterly when you met him (AL- Samarra'i, 2004, P. 150). Al-Ghalayini (2004, p.127) adds another important function of masdar. It is to show the number of something. It is derived from a triliteral verb on the pattern (فعله) such as: 7. (وقفت, وقفه) (waqafta, waqfa) (l stopped, stoppage) 8. (وقفتین) (two stoppages) 9. ((وقفات (more than two stoppages) Thus, it indicates the number of something, which is generally an action. In this example, it shows the number of stoppages. Another type is to show the type or the manner of an action or its quality. Let's consider the following examples: 10. مات میتهً سیئهً)) (m aata mitattan sayyatan) (lit. He died abad death) (He died a grisly death 11. علی حسن الجلسه)) (ali hasaan il-jilsah) (lit. Ali has a nice sitting) (Ali sits nicely) In these examples, the verbal nouns (میته) (death) and (جلسه) (sitting) clarify the quality and the manner of the actions of death and sitting respectively Al-Ghalayini (2004, P.129). To sum up, a verbal noun in Arabic or what is called masdar is an accusative lexical item which refers to an action devoid of time. It is derived from the stem of the verb from which it is taken. In Arabic, Masdar is the source of Arabic verbs and all other derivations are taken from masdar. Masdar in Arabic are formed according to certain patterns and their respective verbs. Arabic masdars have their own generic and ideosyncratic functions and roles. Methodology 3.1 Overview In the present study, an analysis was done on the introduction sections of the Arabic and English research articles in Applied linguistics, sociology, history and literarture. The method of analysis was top-down, applying macro-structure models by Halliday and Matthiessen (1994). The approach embedded for analysis was eclectic, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative approaches. In this chapter, what is presented includes data collection, analytical frameworks, procedures, and data analysis. 3.2 Data The data of this study includes 100 research articles (RAs 50 representing RAs in Arabic and English. The Arabic papers introductions were taken from the accredited journals available at the University of Basra such as the journals of the College of Arts, the College of Education, Arab Gulf Centre, and Basra Studies. As for the data of English, they were also extracted from accredited RAs in English linguistics and literarture. Analytical framework The theory adopted in this study is Systemic functional grammar which views nominalization as grammatical metaphor. Nominalization is primarily related to a shift on the ideational level which is related to the concept of clause as representation and to the realization of transitivity structures, which express the ideational meaning, i.e. what the sentence is about, which typically involves a process and its participants (and circumstances) Halliday (1994). For each meaning to be expressed, there are choices which are natural and such choices lead to realizations that are called ‘congruent’: there are what speakers recognize as typical patterns of wording. Building an experience in the form of language is already inherently a metaphorical process. So as well as recognizing what is congruent, we also recognize that there are other possibilities, where the typical pattern has not been adopted and the speaker or writer has selected to state things differently (Halliday, 1994:343). These choices are incongruent realizations. Halliday (1994, p. 323) accounted for an important theoretical framework, which is grammatical metaphor. This grammatical metaphor means “using one grammatical structure or grammatical category to replace another, instead of using a word to replace another”. In other words, in the lexicogrammar of any language, one can deduce the fact that for there are different realizations out of which different functions can be achieved. As far as nominalization is concerned, Halliday uses the terminology congruent and incongruent (or metaphorical) forms. Congruent forms are the typical ways by which a speaker can construe experience. The “typical” is “the way it is commonly said or the way it is said in the absence of any special circumstances” (Halliday, 2000, p. 343). Nevertheless, the incongruent or the metaphorical realization expands the meaning or adds further semantic features. This is a powerful resource for expanding the meaning potential of language, which is marked as grammatical metaphor (Lakoff & Mark, 1980). Halliday (2000) claimed that nominalization is a process in which groups of elements are employed to function as a nominal group in the clause. In addition, he noted that the process of nominalization is considered as a powerful resource by which speakers can grammatical metaphors. Via adopting nominalization, processes (congruently worded as verbs) and properties (congruently worded as adjectives) are rephrased metaphorically as nouns or nominal groups; instead of functioning in the clause, as Process or Attribute, they function as Thing in the nominal group (Bloor, 1995; Raveli, 1988). Through nominalizing a certain process, the nominalized items necessarily undergo lexical-grammatical as well as semantic change. Grammatical metaphors are therefore alternative realizations in which certain meanings are expressed through other grammatical means rather than the ones that have developed especially for them. Nominalization is then defined as both the action Mathieson (2004:636), wording a process as a noun, i.e. nominalizing, it is a more sophisticated realization than the congruent one and is not part of every-day spontaneous speech. Halliday (1994) presented a theory of SFL. Nominalization in SFL theory is related to grammatical metaphor as it indicates the process or attribute. Halliday classifies grammatical metaphor into three crucial types: (1) interpersonal grammatical metaphor accommodates ''the expression of mood and modality''. And (2) the ideational grammatical metaphor that is closely tied to the transitivity system.. (3) textual. As first type of grammatical metaphor. Semantically, grammatical metaphor was extended in modality system and it includes explicit indication of ''subjective'' and ''objective'' orientation. The modality system proposal was a realization of the projection sequence by nexus two clauses rather than single clause. Systemically, metaphorical attends to an expansion of the meaning potential, which can create new structures and new patterns by a new systemic domain of meaning. The orientation system is extended and include 'explicit' and 'implicit' which it is make describe explicit such as wording '' I think, and it is likely that, which, in turn, makes it possible to increase the delicacy of differentiations (cf. I think/imagine/expect/assume/suppose/reckon/guess; I would think/I would have thought; I imagine/I can imagine; and so on). As for, this same principle extends beyond modality and applies to modal assessment more generally (e.g. I regret, it is regrettable that). The metaphoric strategy ''is to upgrade the interpersonal assessment from group rank to clause rank — from an adverbial group or prepositional phrase serving within a simple clause to a clause serving within a clause nexus of projection''(p.626). The speakers and addressee as ‘projector’: ‘I think’, ‘I say’; ‘do you think’, ‘do you say’ is involve by Interpersonal projection. ((I don’t believe that endorsing the Nuclear Freeze initiative is the right step for California Common Cause. Tempting as it may be, we shouldn’t embrace every popular issue that comes along. When we do so we use precious limited resources where other players with superior resources are already doing an adequate job. Rather, I think we will be stronger and more effective if we stick to those issues of governmental structure and process, broadly defined, that have formed the core of our agenda for years. Open government, campaign finance reform, and fighting the special interests and big money — these are our kinds of issues.. Let’s be clear: I personally favour the initiative and ardently support disarmament negotiations to reduce the risk of war. But I don’t think endorsing a specific freeze proposal is appropriate for CCC. We should limit our involvement in defense and weaponry to matters of process, such as exposing the weapons industry’s influence on the political process. Therefore, I urge you to vote against a CCC endorsement of the nuclear freeze initiative (p. 227). This example illustrates the connection between projection and mood in interpersonal grammatical metaphor. The modulation expression is (we shouldn't, we should) and expressions of modalization are italicized. In other hand the metaphorical expression is underlines wording (I don’t think, I don't believe, I urge you). In this example, pinpointed that is modalization was largely explicit while the case of modulation was implicit. The last clause (I argue you to vote …. Is you must vote) is characterized as '' imperative'' or ''obligation''. i.e. which is an ‘imperative’ clause — the congruent realization of a proposal of the subtype ‘command’. This indicates the connection between ‘imperative’ clauses and modulation. (p. 227) Interpersonal metaphor grammar has metafunctions in language as interactive. Through linguistic interactive can be focused on enacting interpersonal relation. The interpersonal metafunction can be seen in expressions of language of subjective meaning through evaluative words (as in you damn fool, a stupid remark). As for, modality aspect that refers to how can be express in evaluation about likelihood and it is defined as meaning (certainty, possibility, probability and the like), that is usually used the model verb or model adverb. For instance, these examples show this fact: - She might\ may\ can\ could\ will come to the meeting tomorrow. - May be he hasn't left yet; the lights are still on. - He surely hasn't left yet; the lights are still on. Another type of grammatical metaphor in the interpersonal component of language is mood. Mood includes (interrogative, declarative, imperative and the like). - Where have you put the bottle? In this example used interrogative mood, when asked about information by mean of question. But, when given information by means of statement which used declarative mood such as this an example: - The bottle is in the fridge. In commands, these express the interpersonal mood such as - Give me the bottle. Halliday (1985) introduced his notion of lexical metaphor to grammatical metaphor. According to Halliday's notion that as typical instance of grammatical metaphor considers various type of nominalizations. The following an example illustrated this notion: - John's writing of a letter to his sister surprised me. - They started a letter writing campaign In first sentence of above an example refers to process taking place a time in reality. As not Halliday's view that processes are normally expressed in conjugate verb with number of participants. The verb and participants come together to make full clauses (the verb write, participants john+ a letter+ to his sister). i.e. grammatical metaphor has a type from a process as clauses (the default encoding of process) to process as noun phrase. Thus, grammatical metaphor is based on variation between common, standard, default (i.e. process realized as clause) and other form that known process by noun phrase. In grammatical metaphor has two aspects. These aspects involved in the movement or metaphorical extension that are not referred to lexemes and lexical meaning (as with lexical metaphor). Rather, they refer to grammatical forms, or expression to grammatical means, for instance (clause and nominal group) The second type of grammatical metaphor is ideational grammatical metaphor. Ideational grammatical metaphor of language is based on the shaping reality and role of language in representing. In language can be able subdividing reality into process, it means that place, entity that take part in these processes (living being, concrete and abstract things). And entity is used to describe by qualities. Taking an examples illustrate the ideational metaphor. - Mary liked the present very much - The book is very interesting In these above example display process verb like accrues between two participating Mary and the present. While, the other example the quality very interesting describe the entity the book. The ideational or (representational) has a major aspect of systemic functional grammatical models, therefore the classification of different types of processes and participants they can take. Functionally, the notion of a '' process' in 'the systemic functional model' is represented a shape and reality in living as human being. Processes are considered as complementary to other ideational notions such as 'entity 'and 'quality'. According to Halliday (1984), the different types of processes are expressed by means of a clause, but they can metaphorically be expressed by means of noun phrase. The importance of a noun phrase is considered also 'normal'. The following examples illustrate the a process rephrased metaphorically in the form of a 'noun phrase': - John's writing of a letter to his sister surprised me. - They started a letter writing campaign. In contrast, sometimes adjectives can be adopted where they can be used metaphorically to express quality. Such a quality can be encoded by using an adjective. For instance, in the example below, the quality of being (dishonest) can be restated metaphorically: - She is dishonest. - You cannot really count on her honesty. Another form of the sub-types of ideational metaphors can be expressed by an adjective which can be conceived of as quality instead. An example is the following: - You cannot wash these trousers in the machine. - These trousers are not machine washable. Out of what is proposed above, ideational metaphors are considered as a powerful resource in grammar and one of the effective forms of ideational metaphor is the use of a noun phrase to restate a given process in the grammar of any language. To round up what was stated above, as for the classification of nominalization raised by Halliday, there are five types of nominalization including nominalization of process, nominalization of quality, nominalization of circumstance, nominalization of relator and nominalization of zero. In addition to the fact that nominalization does not only incorporate the transformation of grammatical classes, but more importantly, it also involves functional changes. In a nutshell, the process of nominalization is an endeavor to make scientific texts more impersonal and detached because entities will be focused upon and not the actions represented by the different types of processes. Such processes are made objective through the use of nominal groups. In terms of the classification of G M, the researcher adopted the one provided by Halliday and Matthiessen (1999) wherein 13 types were labelled as instances of nominalization. Metaphor, according to Halliday, is a verbal transference or a variation in the expression of meanings which involves a non-literal use of a word. All the types involve a process of shifting from a grammatical category into a noun or a nominal group. These include shifts from quality (e.g. unstable instability); process (e.g. educate education); can/ could possibility; potential, try to attempt; want to desire); circumstance, relator, and prepositional phrase to an entity (e.g. with accompaniment; to destination; (thing is) on the surface surface thing), conjunction (e.g. so cause, proof) and a shift from noun to noun modifier,, etc. in Hallidayan terminology, what counts as an instance of nominalization is regarded a Thing or it is the Head noun set within a nominal group (Halliday & Matthiessen, 1999, p. 245). This notion of GM has its own objectives. These classification are going to applied to the analysis of Arabic selected instance of nominalization. This is going to be done in accordance with the Arabic nominalization patterns and forms. Procedure This study is an attempt at investigating nominalization instances in Arabic and English Research Articles in Applied linguistic, sociology, history and literature. The data comprises 100 RAs: 50 in each language. The data was taken from academic journals in Arabic and English. After collecting the data, the researcher conducted a pilot study fcusing on Arabic RAs due to the lack of information regarding nominalization processes in Arabic. The nominalization tokens in Arabic are obtained depending on the grammatical rules available in the Arabic grammatical books. In addition, the results sent to an expert in Arabic to achieve inter-rater reliability (Al-Samarra'a,1997, Al-Samarra'a, 2007; Al-Mishkin,1992, Amin,200;;Anis,2007; Al-Mustafa,2007; Al-Rajihi,2003;Al-Saqi.1977, Shahin,1987; Yusufi, n.d;; Ukasha,2005;; and others). On the other side, RAs in English were taken from accredited JCR-indexed journals. Moreover, the researcher was rely on the rich literature written on nominalization processes in other studies dealing with this issue in English. On the other side, RAs in English was taken from accredited JCR-indexed journals. Moreover, the researcher was rely on the rich literature written on nominalization processes in other studies dealing with this issue in English. Verbal nouns in Arabic have a complex morphophonological structure, as discussed by McCarthy and Prince (1990). Syntactically, on the other hand, they appear rather straightforward. A verbal noun (المصدر) is a very important derivative in Arabic. It is a noun derived from the verb to refer to the action or activity implied in the verb, e.g. drive/driving, eat/eating, work/working, etc. They can be used in similar contexts to the use of verbal nouns in English, e.g. (هوایتی المفضله هی القراءه) /huwayati al mufadhala hiya alqiraa'a/ (My favorite hobby is reading.) There are approximately ten forms for Arabic verbal nouns. Verb forms are significant for the formation of verbal nouns. The verbal nouns that lie in the range (II X) obey certain patterns. However, in the first form ( I ), there is no rule for deriving the verbal nouns. In spite of this fact, i.e. no derivation rule, there are some patterns that are prominent in this form, e.g. a. (فعل), e.g. (عَمَل) “working”, (جَمْع) “collecting”, (زَرْع) “growing”, (فَتْح) “opening” b. (فِعاله), e.g. (دراسه) “studying”, (تجاره) “commerce”, (قراءه) “reading”, (کتابه) “writing” c. (فعال), e.g. (نجاح) “success”, (ذهاب) “going” d. (فَعیل), e.g. (رحیل) “leaving”, (بریق) “glimmering” e. (فعوله), e.g. (سهوله) “ease”, (صعوبه) “difficulty” To make verbal nouns from form I verbs, these are only few of the patterns that can be employed. In some instances, the same verb can yield more than one verbal noun. There are some discrepancies between them in function or usage or both, e.g. from (صَنَع) which means “to make”, we have 2 verbal nouns (صِناعه) which means “industry” and (صُنْع) which means “making”. Thus, context and form play a significant role in deciding the intended function behind using a verbal noun in Arabic (for further details about the difficulty of classifying Arabic verbal nouns, see 4.4 and 4.5). In the analysis of Arabic nominalization, the researcher adopts the classifications of Arabic scholers. In these RAs, the section which was the corner stone in this study is the introduction section in both Arabic and English RAs. After analyzing the samples taken from both languages, a cross linguistic study was conducted to check the similarities and differences in both languages as far as nominalization instances and functions are concerned. The identification of nominalization instances in the Arabic papers was done according to the rules of nominalization in the Arabic grammar books. In this study, after collecting the occurrences of the Arabic nominalization categories, and to achieve a degree of accuracy, the researcher was send the nominalization instances to an expert in Arabic linguistics in the department of Arabic. This was to achieve the inter-rater reliability. After analyzing part of the Arabic academic papers, the researcher was reported the findings concerning the rules of the formation of the Arabic verbal nouns and findings regarding the behavior of such verbal nouns in Arabic. Thus, In terms of article length in English and Arabic, they differ a lot. Lots of journals in English have guidelines for the maximum recommended length. In fact, they tend to be economic in length but with vast scope of knowledge to be provided. In addition, things also rely on the type of the article. Arabic articles, to a large extent, do not follow guidelines and lots of digressions are found. Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis In the present study, there are six patterns of nominalization which are the expressions that appear in the introduction sections in RAs in the two languages of English and Arabic. With each pattern, there is a table in which frequencies and percentages are shown. Numbers (1- 28) are Iraqi journals, and (29 50) are international journals in linguistics and literature. Before starting the recurrent patterns of nominalization, the average of the word count of introduction sections in the English articles in relation to the total word count of research articles will be presented in the following table: In the following, these patterns are used and explained functions of nominalization in RAs: 1.(Premodifier) + Nominalization + Preposition + (Premodifier) + Nominalization + Preposition + (Premodifier) + (Nominalization) As shown in the examples in which this pattern occurs, we can note the characterizing nominalized structure expansion of the lexicogrammar of the text, which generate a high lexical density. In this pattern, nominalization is a rarely using in these RAs introduction. It is used the nominal expression preceded by the premodifier, for instance (the receivers, the intension, figurative, the investigation, the discussion, dissertation).The congruent form of these examples as is (An assessment was received intensely behind two uttered devices); the second one has its congruent wording as ( the section is investigated by research doctoral discussed dissertations); the nominal expression in this example has a functional role as packing the information and avoided the long structure in text. 1…. the receivers' assessment of the intension behind the two uttered figurative devices, namely metaphor and similes. 2…. the investigation of the discussion section of research papers doctoral dissertation In the following table, the frequency and percentages of pattern (1) are shown: Table 6. shows that the number of pattern (1) in all RAs introductions. This partten is available only in two international journales (31- 36). As one can see, this pattern is not frequent too much. That is, this pattern is not utilized heavily due to its complexity. 2. Preposition + (Premodifier) + nominalization This pattern is more frequent than the previous one. In fact, it is dominating in the introduction sections simply because it is the easiest nominal expression and the use of a modifier gives its more specificity and description. Note the following instances: 3….in the translation as a response to the original, how and why it is done in that way in that context 4……critical analysis in language teacher education…. 5…...in education field move in nature 5……analysis in education tend to shade light on areas vaster than language. 6……within any culture wedding invitation serve as the formal announcement. 7……for creating grammatical metaphor construed as noun…. In these examples above, they clarify the second pattern which includes a preposition and premodifier preceding the nominal expression in the introduction RAs. The congruent wording in these examples are ( to educate, to wedded, to create). Table (7) below shows the number and frequency of pattern (2). The below examples can be congruently represented as (….to understand the linguistics differences and similarities and regardethe latter upon to examin the relevant literature, showing that both of these nomonalizations in examples are taken from verb. Thus, this pattern (4) consist of nominalization + noun phrase nominalization , two clauses are'' packed in one nominal group to perform the functions of conciseness, formality and semantic expansion'' (Jalilifar, Saleh & Don ,2017, p.72): 14…. understanding the linguistics differences and similarities 16…... regarding the latter upon examining the relevant literature 17…. Capability regarding fresh knowledge and technique As for this pattern of nominalization, it describes a nominalized expression besides another (adjacent) one such as the following examples: If we can be analysis these example below according to pattern 5 (nominalization +nominalization), note the sequences the of nominalization in introductions of RAs. Most of these examples seem that there is a preposition preceding the nominalization expressions. Thus, it represents a function of nominalization in scientific texts, complexity and density of information. The features of writing academic discourse are used in fewer words with density or more information. The nominalization function in this pattern is density of information, condensate structure, concise referencing and tightly packed lexical items. 18…...The characteristic of the learning situation 19.. There are some factors influencing learning strategy choice …. 20… the text-oriented nature of translation necessarily This pattern shows the juxtaposition of a participle with a nominalization expression. In fact, the use of a given participle whether it is present or past shows functions related to abstraction in academic writing and according to Granger (1997) participles reflect an integrated and compact style. 23.. any strategy instruction including concept map. 24. ….in Iranian EFL educational setting ... 25.. which being achieved through the language learning. 26…caution concerning such as issue which take place over time. The researcher explores the nominalization and frequency of pattern (6) in the table below. 1. … illuminating and informative studies dealing with CM learning.(46) 2. … a resource for making and exchanging meaning.(45) 3. …the meaning, both connotative and denotative to the readers…(33) 4. … its brevity, attractiveness and clarity. (33) 5. … attention-grabbing and effective (33) 6. School administrators and professional teacher should not remain…. (47) 7. Understanding the linguistics differences and similarities… (33) 8. … the relationship between morphology knowledge and translation ... (4) 9. … the spirit shrouded with mystery, superstition and mysticism. (5) 10. . the teacher training and teacher development courses...(47) 11. Left us with detailed and analytic written. 12. Wester ways of thinking and writing are very different way.. 13. …structure to comprehension and clarifying 14. …metaphor as a maintaining and resisting .. 15. … the teachers professional knowledge and professional skills….(47) 16. …. Language education comes down to designing and administering…(48) 17. … the ways mean of developing and implementing. (50) 18. Thus, implementing satisfying and gratifying techniques…(50) 19. … the mental states of speakers and hearers….(34) 20. … of language teaching and learning …(37) 21. …of L2 teaching and learning…(37) 22. …. rhetorical norms, expectations, and conventions…(39) 23. … the creation and dissemination of knowledge (39) 24. … means of classification, exemplification, and description. (39) 25. … its help teachers and administrators. (40) Analyzing Arabic nominalization constructions In Arabic, there are two types of nominalization: (المصدر الصریح) /al-masdar al-Sareeh/ (Explicit nominalization) and ( ( المصدر المؤول/al-masdar al-mu'awwal/ (Interpreted as nominalization) (having a particle plus a verb) verbal nouns. There are differences between these two types of nominalization regarding their configurations, usages and functions. As far as English is concerned, there are plethora of studies that examine the notion of nominalization. According to Chamoreau and Estrada-Fernandez (2016, p. 6), nominalization is "a re-categorization process, the creation of a nominal constituent that fulfills the most essential nominal function; that is, the referring expression". Basically, this process involves turning a finite clause into a non-finite one, a case which was discussed extensively in all of the papers in Chamoreau and Estrada-Fernandez (2016). However, in Arabic, this is not the case as it is going to be approved in the articles to be analyzed. A verbal noun in Arabic resembles a verb in its action and has no time reference. It takes different names in parsing (according to the structure of a sentence). The cognate object is one of them. The cognate object is a verbal noun that is mentioned after its verb either to emphasize its meaning, to show its number, to show its kind, or to substitute the pronunciation of its verb. In a cross linguistic study on nominalization across Arabic and French, Tayalati and Van de Velde (2014) adopted the framework of Lexical Conceptual Structure (Jackendoff, 1983, 1990; Levin, 1993; Levin & Rappaport, 1999). They studied the nominals that trigger the event meanings. Such event meaning nominals are related to their verbal bases. They worked on the two types of Arabic nominal groups according to their transitive and intransitive verbal roots. Sometimes, the nominal groups retain their verbal force through their impact upon their external and internal arguments. Such nominalizations are basically taken from unaccusative verbs such as / mäta / (die) and /ŝä'a / (spread). As an illustrative example, they provided some examples as in the following: (قصف المدینه من طرف العدو) ( qasf l-madinati min tarfil- 'aduwwi) (the bombing of the city by the enemy) They labelled such type of nominalization as unaccomplished nominalization that has an idiosyncratic feature. This feature is that this nominal group cannot be modified by an adjective but by an adverb as in the following example: (قصف المدینه بشراسه ) ( qasfu l madinati bi-ŝaräsitin) ( the bombing of the city ferociously) If a nominlization is fully accomplished, it means it loses its dominance over the arguments. Guillen Galve (1998, p. 369) points out "GM [grammatical metaphor] operates primarily by turning clauses into nouns …. [where GM] applies in general to any instance of lexicogrammatical transference". Lexical cohesion can be achieved via grammatical metaphor which can be created by the process of nominalization which is "the single most powerful resource for creating grammatical metaphor&" (Halliday, 1994, p. 352). Another important function of nominalization is that lexical density can be realized via nominalization (Guillen Galve (1998, p. 366). This study aims at investigating nominalization in Arabic research articles and it also attempts to contrast the functions of nominalization across Arabic and English. Fakhri (2012) investigates the functions of nominalization in Arabic discourse with a particular focus on legal genres. Arent (1998) examined in their research (nominalization in Discourse A gene analysis perspective). He explains the importance of contribution of the proposed analyses to Arabic discourse and genre analysis in general is assessed. And the data used quantitative analysis of the various functions of nominalization with illustrations from the genre under consideration. Moreover,, these data used from Morocco and Jorden. Significantly, legal discourse manipulates nominalizations in order to achieve '' a high degree of conciseness for the formulation of comprehensive legal rules''Fakhri (2009). He compares the introductions section of research articles from the fields of the law and Humanities. The comparison with other area of Arabic linguistics, legged was a bite by the study of Arabic discourse. Eid(1990) has wrote :'' In the area of discourse analysis, I have not found anything on spoken ; on written discourse or texts some work is now emerging especially that of Johnstone and Al-Batal''. Najjar(1990) and Fakhri(2004), they investigated the nominalization in introduction of RAs in Arabic using model by Swales (1990). Furthermore, they raised the analysis that concerns variation resulting from the choice between nominalization and equivalent finite clauses. In the next section, the researcher sheds light on the process of forming a verbal noun in Arabic. Out of the samples studied, lots of scholars focus on the formation of the Arabic verbal noun. The first major way of forming a verbal noun is through the three - tier verb, i.e. a verb which consists of three letters Al- Samarra'i(2007). In Arabic, there are patterns for the three tier verb. All the patterns have the form / fi'l / (فعل) (verb) but with different pronunciations due to different vowels added to this form. For example, the pattern / fa'ala / (فعَلَ) which can be transitive as in (ضرَبَ زیدٌ خالداً) /Daraba zaidun xalidan / ( Zaid hit Khalid) Some three-tier verbs which refer to an occupation have their verbal noun in the form /fi'aalah/. For example, the verb / tajara/ (make trade) has its verbal noun as /tijaarah/ (trade). Some verbs denote a change or disturbance; such verbs have their verbal nouns as /fa'alaan/. For example, the verb /ĝala / (boil) becomes / ĝalayaan / (boiling). In addition, there are verbs that show an illness, which have their verbal nouns in the form of / fu'aal/ as in /sa'ala/ which becomes /su'aal/. In this regard, viz. three-tier verbs, some denote a sound where their verbal noun has the form of /fa'eel / and / fu'aal/. For instance, the verb /ṣahala / (neigh) becomes / ṣaheel / (neighing) and the verb /ṣaraxa/ (scream) becomes /ṣuraax / (screaming). There are three tier verbs that denote a deficit and have their verbal nouns as / fa'al / such as / 'arija / (limp) which becomes /'raj / (limping). Those verbs denoting colour have their verbal nouns as /fu'lah/ such as the verb /hamira / (became red) whose verbal noun is /humrah/ (redness). There are transitive verbs having the forms of /fa'ala / and /fa'ilah /: these verbs have their verbal nouns as /f'l /. For example, the verb /'axaða / (took) becomes /'xð/ (taking). Another example is the verb /ta'iba/ (became tired) whose verbal noun is /ta'b / (tiredness). There are other patterns concerning the formation of verbal nouns out of three tier verbs. For instance, three tier verbs in the form of / fa'ala / can have their verbal nouns as /fu'ool/ such as /qa'ada/ (sat) which becomes / qu'ood/ (sitting). Sometimes, such verbs have their middle sound a vowel one; in such a case the verbal noun becomes in the form of / fi'aal / as in the verb /ṣaama / (fasted) whose verbal noun is / ṣiyaam / (fasting). Intransitive three tier verbs of the form /fa'ula / generally have their verbal nouns in the patterns / fa'aala / and / fu'oola /. For example, the intransitive verb / ŝaju'a / ( man up) has its verbal noun as / ŝujaa'a / (bravery). Another example having the second pattern is the verb /sahula / (became easy) has its verbal noun as / suhoola/ (easiness). All Arabic verbs that are not trilateral are regular, unlike the three tier verbs which can have irregular verbs. Quadrilateral verbs in the form / fa'lala / have their verbal nouns as / fa'llala / such as the verb / dahraja/ (roll) whose verbal noun is / dahraja / (rolling). Another pattern is when the middle sound is geminated as in the verb /zalzala / (shook) whose verbal noun is / zalzalah / (lit. earthquake) or / zilzaal /. Some three-tier verbs are introduced by the letter / alif / or Hamza. These verbs have their verbal nouns in the form of /'if'aal /. An example is the verb /axraja / (send out) becomes as a verbal noun as /'ixraaj/ (sending out). There are other rules regarding three-tier verbs that have their middle letter geminated. Such verbs have the form / fa''al/ and their verbal nouns have the form /taf'eel/. An example is the verb /qaddas/ (made sacred) and the verbal noun is /taqdees/ (sacredness). If such verbs end in a vowel, their verbal noun has the form /taf'ila / as in /rabba/ (raise up) whose verbal noun is /tarbiyyah/ (raising up). These are the basic rules concerning the most recurrent patterns of the Arabic verbs. There are verbs that consist of five and six letters. These also have their own rules for the formation of their verbal nouns. In Arabic, a verbal noun functions on behalf of its deleted verb, a case where the verbal noun assumes the role of its deleted verb. For example, if one says the following: ( صبرا یا اخی ) (Sabran yaa 'xi) (Be patient my brother) In this example, the verbal noun / Sabran/ (Being patient) functions just like its verb, which is here interpreted as an imperative verb (Be patient). Syntactically, this verbal noun can be parsed as a Cognate object taking into consideration its deleted verb (Be patient). There is a test in Arabic through which one can know whether a verbal noun can function instead of its verb or not. This test is through using the infintivial particle /'an / which precedes the present simple verb. Let's take the following illustrative example: (یسرّنی فهمک الدرسَ) / yasurrani fahmuka l-darsa/ (Your understanding of the lesson pleases me) The verbal noun in this example is / fahmuk / (your understanding), which can be replaced by the particle /'an/ and the present simple verb. Thus, one can get the following: (یسرّنی أن تفهم الدرسَ) / yasarrunai 'anka tafham l-darsa/ (I am pleased that you understand the lesson) In the version containing the verbal noun, the noun /l-dars/ ( the lesson) is syntactically considered as the object of the verbal noun, which is a kind of nominalization in Arabic. One can recognize that Arabic nominalization instances have a verbal force: in this case it assumes the role of a transitive verb that requires an object. However, there are constraints that hinder this function in Arabic verbal nouns. For instance, if the singularity (-t) is annexed to the verbal noun, such a verbal noun cannot function as its verb. Take the following example: (سرّتنی سفرتک الریاض) / sarratni safratuka l-riyaD / (Your travel for Riyadh pleased me) The singularity morpheme ( -t) is annexed to verbal noun / safar / (travel), a case which prohibits its functioning instead of its verb. 1. Trilateral verbs: these consist of three letters especially of three consonants. This pattern includes a large group of Arabic verb forms (See Al-Ghalayini, 2004, p. 121). However, the basic trilateral verbal forms encapsulate the following: a. (فَعْل ) /fa?l/ as in (نصر ) /nasr/ (victory) b. (فَعَل ) / fa?al / as in ((جهل / jahal / (ignorance) c. (فُعُول ) /fu?uul/ as in (( جفول/jufuul/ (wincing) d. (فِعال ) /fi?aal / as in (قتال ) /qitaal/ (fighting) e. (فَعلان ) /fa?laan / as in (کسلان ) /kaslaan / (being lazy) f. (فُعال ) /fu?aal / as in (سعال) /su?aal / (coughing) g. (فعیل ) /fa?eel / as in (صهیل) /Saheel/ (neighing) h. (فَعُوله ) /fa?uula/ as in (حموله ) /Hamuula/ (cargo) i. (فعاله ) /fa?aala/ as in (( درایه/ daraaya/ (awareness) j. (فِعاله ) /fi?aala / as in (( خیانه/xiyaana / (treachery) k. (فَعَلان ) /fa?alaan / as in (دوران ) /dawaraan / (circularity) l. (تفعال ) / tif?aal/ as in (تکرار) /tikraar/ (repetition) m. (إفعال ) /if?aal/ as in (إقبال ) /iqbaal/ (turnout or visiting or good demand, the meaning is decided by context) and there other forms taken from derived forms. As for verbs having more than three letters, they have their nominalization as one form. For example, if the verb has four letters, its nominal construction is in the form of (إفعال ) /if?aal/ as in (إکرام ) (rewarding). This applies to the verbs having five or six letters as in (إنطلاق ) (moving or starting). In addition, there are verbs that start with the letter (ta-) where their nominal construction is in the form of (تفاعل ) /tafaa?ul / such as (تساقط ) /tasaaquT/ (falling). There are verbs having their second letter geminated. These have their nominalization constructions in the form of ( تفعیل) /taf?eel / such as (تقبیل ) /taqbeel / (kissing) or they take the form (تفعله ) /taf?ilah/ such as (تجربه ) (experiment or experience). On the other hand, if the verb ends in a vowel, its nominal construction is in the form of (تفعله ) /taf?ilah/ as in (توصیه ) (recommendation) (Al-Ghalayini, 2004, p. 121). Furthermore, there are Arabic verbs having the form (فعلل ) /fa?lal/ whose nominal construction is in the form of (فعلله ) as in (سیطره ) (controlling). There are verbal nouns which are called ((مصدر التأکید /masdar al-ta'keed/ (Emphatic verbal nouns) whose function is to emphasize the verb in a given clause. An illustrative example is the following: (ضربتُ اللصَ ضرباً ) /Daribtu il-lisa Darban/ (I beat the thief beating) (lit. translation) (I did beat the thief) One can see that the verbal noun (ضربا ) /Darban/ (beating) is derived from the form of the verb (ضرب ) /Daraba/ (beat). Moreover, there is another type of Arabic verbal nouns called (مصدر المره أو العدد ) /masdar el-marrah Aw el-?adad/ (number verbal noun) (. That is, it shows the number of doing something or how many times something happens. An example is the following: (وقفاُ وقفتین ) /waqaftu waqfatayn/ (I stood two standings) (I stood twice) Thus, such verbal nouns give the number of times by which the action of the verb is done. In this example, it shows the number of the action of standing (Al-Ghalayini, 2004, p. 127). On the same level, there is a verbal noun called (مصدر النوع ) /masdar el-naw?/ (a verbal noun of quality). It describes the quality or the manner of the verb. An example is: (مات میته سیئه ) /maata meetatan say;tan/ (He died bad death) Another important type of Arabic verbal nouns is called (المصدر المیمی ) /al-masdar al-meemi/ (a verbal noun starting with the prefix / m- / ) added to verbs of three letters whether they are basic or derived verbs. This prefix /m-/ is one of the important morphological tools in the Semitic languages where Arabic is one of them (Al-Maliki, 2019, p. 133). It is employed to formulate verbal nouns. This type of masdar is derivational, where the majority of such verbal nouns refer to a place or a given time. It has various forms including the following: a. The form (مَفْعَل ) /maf?al/ is taken from three-tier verbs whether they are transitive or intransitive such as (مَذهَب ) /mathhab/ (doctrine), (مَقام ) /maqaam/ (situation), (موعد ) /maw?ad / (appointment), etc. The semantic implication of this masdar can be obtained from the context in which it occurs. It has a meaning which shows the termination of a given action such as the masdar (مَساق ) /masaaq/ (procession). For example, the meaning of this masdar in Imam Ali's saying: (الاجلُ مساقُ النفس ) / al-'ajalu masaqul- nafs/ (One's last moment is the destination of the soul). It means that any human soul ends when its last moment is decided by God. b. The form (مَفْعِل ) /maf?il/ includes items such as (مورد ) /mawrid/ (resource), (مسیر ) /maseer/ (walking) , (مصیر ) /maSeer/ (destination), (محیص ) /maheeS/ (escape), etc. c. The form (مِفغال ) includes verbal nouns such as (میراث ) /miraath/ (heritage), (میقات ) /miqaat/ (timing), (میعاد ) /mi?aad/ (date or appointment), (میزان ) /mizaan/ (scale), etc. d. The form (مفعله ) /maf?alah/ include items such as (المعذره ) /al-ma?tharah/ (apology), (المعتبه ) /al-ma?tabah/ (blaming), (میسره ) / maysarah/ (easiness), etc. e. The form (مَفعِله ) /maf?ilah/ include items such as (المعصیه) /al-ma?Siyah/ (sin), (المغفره) /al-maghfirah/ (forgiveness), (معجزه) /ma?djizah/ (miracle), etc. f. The form (مَفعُله ) /maf?ulah/ include items such as (مثوبه) /al-mathoobah/ (reward). As one can see that all the above forms end in the morpheme feminine /-t/. These forms are highly recurrent. Another frequent Arabic verbal noun is called (المصدر الصناعی ) /al-masdar al-Sinaa'i/ which is literally translated into English as the manufactured verbal noun because it is made from another noun by adding a bound morpheme which is (یه ) /-yat/ to the end of that noun. Examples of this type include (إلوهیه ) /iloohiyyah/ (deity) and (ربوبیه ) /ruboobiyyah/ (deism). The semantic implication of suffixing this morpheme (یه ) is to add emphasis, hyperbole, and another semantic dimension (Al-Maliki, 2019, p. 149). Al-Maliki provided for us examples of this type and their semantic implications. For instance, if we use the noun (إنسان ) /insaan/ (Man), it refers to the original meaning of this word, which refers to any human being. On the other hand, if we suffix the bound morpheme ( - یه), we get a verbal noun which is (الانسانیه ) /al-insaaniyyah/ (humanity), which means the quality of being humane which includes all the traits of human beings. In the following section, the analysis of the Arabic articles will be done in terms of nominalization instances and patterns. However, before the researcher goes through the analyses, the percentages of the Arabic nominalization instances will be presented in the As shown in the percentages, the dominant expressions in the introduction sections are the nominalized ones. This gives the indication that Arabic makes heavy use of such expressions. There are other implications which are going to be revealed in the conclusion chapter. Moreover, there are other idiosyncratic features that will be highlighted in the following section which explores the analysis of the Arabic academic articles. To sum up, the prevailing clauses in the introduction sections of the Arabic research articles are the nominal clauses following the Arabic basic word order which is SVO, where the verb is not necessary in such clauses. 1. الاجتماعی / min ajil ta?zeez wa nashir Huqooq il ='insaan wa mumaarasat aDagaT al 'ijtimaa?i / (For the sake of consolidating and spreading human rights and exerting social pressure) Two nominal expressions are juxtaposed here. These are (تعزیز ) / ta?zeez/ (consolidating) and (نشر ) / nashir/ (spreading). Both are in a Construct relationship with the nominal construction (حقوق الانسان) /Huqooq il-insaan/ (human rights). In this instance, these nominalization expressions (تعزیز ) / ta?zeez/ (consolidating) and (نشر ) / nashir/ (spreading) have a finiteness function in the sense that they take an object. This is something idiosyncratic in Arabic. In the same example, there is another instance which has the same function, which is ممارسه الضغط الاجتماعی ) ) / mumaarasat aDagaT al 'ijtimaa?i/ (exerting social pressure). This gives us the indication that Arabic nominalized expressions have a verbal force that requires making an object subjunctive or a subject nominative. The nominalization instance (نشر) \nashir\ (spreading) and (( ضغط \ digat\ (pressure) are within the pattern \fa'l\ which conveys certain semantic functions including refrence to a disease whether psychological or physiological , a deficit, delight or sorrow, horror or fear, being full or empty, a movement and what not. (Al-Maliki, 2020, pp. 25-31). In terms of these functions, the instance of (نشر) \nasher\ (spreading) refers to a type of movement or activity, whereas ( ( ضغط \ digat\ (pressure) refers to a negative psychological state. In (8) , there is also the nominalization instance( (تعزیز \ ta'azeez\ (consolidating) which has the pattern \tafa' eel\. This pattern gives certain semantic functions such as showing multiplicity, making, attributing, creating and a sound. In this example, it refers to the function of multiplicity. 1. Data - mining and the re-engineering data bases by Abdul-Sattar Shakir Salman (2019) After reviewing the introduction section of this article, the most recurrent Arabic verbal nouns include the following: a. (اخذ هذا العنصر فی الوقت الحالی الترتیب الثانی فی العالم المتقدم ) /akhatha haatha al-?unSur fil waqt al-Haali al-tarteeb al-thaani fil-?aalam al-mutaqdim/ (This element is currently ranked second in the developed world ) In (a), there is a simple noun phrase consisting of a nominalized expression (الترتیب) / al-tarteeb/ (order) which is modified by the ordinal expression (الثانی) / al-thaani/ (second). Thus, there is a modification relationship. b. (دخل مجال المنافسه مع السلع الاخری ... ان یاخذ الصداره ) /dakhala majaal al-munaafasah ma?a al-sila? al-ukhraa … 'an ya'khuth makaan al-Sadaarah/ (it entered the field of competition with other goods ... to take the lead). The nominalized expression (المنافسه) / al-munaafasah/ (competition), which is taken from the verb (تنافس ) /tanafasa/ (compete), is in a Construct relationship with the head noun (مجال) /majaal/ (field). In the same example, there is another nominalized expression which is (الصداره) / al-Sadaarah/ (being in the top). It is taken from the verb (تصّدر) /taSSadara/ (being first). It functions as an object of the verb (یأخذ) /ya?khuth/ (take). c. (لضعف الخطط و الدراسات و التنظیم المطلوب ) / lidhuf al-khatta wa al-dirassat wa al-tanzhim matloub/ (Because of the weak plans, studies and regulation required ) In this example, there are three nominalized expressions coordinated. These are (الخطط و الدراسات و التنظیم) / al-khatta wa al-dirassat wa al-tanzhim/ (plans, studies and regulation). All of these three items are modified by another nominalized expression which is (المطلوب) /al-matloob/ (required). All of these items are in a Construct relationship with another nominalized expression which is (ضعف) / lidhu'f/ (weakness). The congruent verbal construction of this nominalization instances would be: (There are weak plans, studies and regulation which are required) In addition, there is the nominalization (تنظیم ) \tanzim\ (order).( see the functions of this pattern in (8) in the previous article). d. (الی أقرب محرقه قمامات ام الی محازن الارشیف ) / alle akrab mahraqqa qumamat em alle makhazin alarsheev/ to the nearest garbage incinerator or to the archives ) A noun phrase containing a comparative adjectival item (أقرب ) /'?qrab/ (nearer), which is taken from the verb (قرب ) /qaruba/ (become near). This adjectival expression is in a Construct relationship with a nominalized expression which is (محرقه) /maHraqah/ (incinerator). Another nominalization instance is (محازن الارشیف) / makhazin alarsheev/ (the archives). e. (تنخر به الافات البشریه و الفیزیائیه و البیولوجیه و الکیمیائیه ) / tankher beh al-afat al-bashriya wa vesiaiaia wa albiologia wa al-kimiya/ (It's full of human, physical, biological and chemical pests) All the nominalization instancesالبشریه) ) \al-bashryai\ ( the huamanity)( الفیزیائیه ) \al feiza'aia\ ( the physics) ( البیولوجیه) \albioligia\ (the biological) (الکیمیائیه) \al kimai a'a\ ( the chemistry) are mounfactured verbal nouns (see their functions in articles). Here, there are also nominalization instances where four nominalized items that modify a head noun which is (الافات ) / al-'afat/(pests). f. (لاعاده هندسه او هیکله قواعد البیانات ) / li'aadat hindsa ou hecla qwaa'id al-bayanat / (To re-engineer or restructure databases) Again, there is a Construct relationship represented by the use of nominalization expressions. g. (تستخدم بعدها اسالیب التنقیب ... و اکتشاف المعرفه ) / tustakhdem baadha asalip tenkib ... wa ekchav al-marfa/ (Then use the methods of exploration ... And discovering knowledge) On the same level, there is a Construct relationship represented by the use of nominalization expressions. The nominalization (تنقیب) \tenkib\ (exploration) is in the pattern \tafa'aeel\ . h. (دوره حیاه البیانات مع اعطاء نبذه عن واقع قواعد البیانات ) / dawrat Hayat al-bayanat ma i'taa nubthah an waqi' qawa'id al-bayanat/ (Data lifecycle with a profile of the reality of databases) Here, again there is a Construct relationship in (اعطاء نبذه ) / i'taa nubthah/ (giving a summary). 2. Tomarisk tree in light of cuneiform references by Saad Salman Fahad (2021) After reviewing the introduction section of this article, the most recurrent and the basic Arabic verbal nouns include the following: a. (التعرف علی جانب من جوانب حضاره وادی الرافدین الا و هو استعمال بعض الاشجار ... للاغراض الدینیه و الطبیه ) / al-taraf ola janeb minn joanp hedara wadi al-rafdin al-a wa ho estamal baad al-ashjar ... laghrad al-deiniye wal Tibiyyah/ (identifying one aspect of the civilization of the Mesopotamian Valley, which is the use of some trees ... for religious and medical purposes ) In (a), the nominalized expression (التعرف) /al-ta'arruf/ (knowing or identifying) is taken from the verb (عرف) / 'arafa/ (know). In this context, this nominalized expression is followed by a prepositional phrase which is also followed by another prepositional phrase which governs a noun phrase in a Construct. The form (تعرف) \ta'arruf\ is set in the pattern \tafeel\. One of the semantic functions of this pattern is ''becoming'' or ''being''. In this instance, it means that readers will becom knowledgable In the same example, there are two nominalized expressions which are in a Construct relationship, too. It is (للاغراض الدینیه) (for religious purposes), where there is a preposition preceding them. b. (من المهم تسلیط الضوء علیها ) / minal moham teslit daoua aliha/ (It's important to highlight it) In this example, there are three nominalized expressions: the adjective (مهم) /muhim/ (important) which is taken from the verb (یهم) /yahum/ (to concern), the nominal (تسلیط) /tasleeT) (shedding) which is taken from the verb (سلّط ) lsallaTa/ (to shed), and the nominal (الضوء ) /al-Daw'/ (light) which is taken from the verb (أضاءَ ) /'aDaa'a/ (to light). The last two nominal are in a Construct relationship which is preceded by the first part of a prepositional phrase which equals a cleft sentence in English. This instance of (تسلیط) \teslit\ is in form of (تفعیل) \tafa'aeel\. c. (من خلال الاستقراء الاول للمعلومات ) / min khilal alistaqra al-awal lamalomat/ (Through the first extrapolation of information) In (c ), the nominal (الاستقراء) / alistaqra/ (induction) is preceded by a prepositional phrase and followed by an adjective which modifies it. This nominal is taken from the verb (استقرأ) (to induce). The nominal expression (معلومات) /ma?lumaat/ (information) is taken from the verb (علم) /?alima/ (to know). Here it is governed by a preposition. The instance of (الاستقراء) (induction) is in the pattern (استفعال) \'istifa'al\ which has one of its function as summarizing a whole issue. (Al-Maliki, 2020. P.183) 3. British economic relations during the conservative party government 1951-1964 by Raghad Faisal Abdul Wahab (2021) The most frequent and basic verbal nouns that dominate this article encapsulate the following ones: a. تکون هذه المفردات المشتقه عرضه للتغییر فی بنیتها الصرفیه ) / tekon hathihi al-mufradat mechtaqa arada letgier fe pneetha sarfiyah/ (These derived vocabulary items are subject to change in its pure structure). b. (یستدعی تغییراً فی دلالتها عند دخولها فی سیاق ما )/ yestedai teghiera fe delaltha and dzholha fe siyaq ma/ (it calls for a change in significance when entering a context) c. (ان یخضع الی هذه المعادله لدی علماء العرب) / an yekhda alle huthe maadela lada alma al-arab/ (to be subject to this equation among Arab scholars) d. (عند قراءه کتب اللغه و التفسیر هناک خلطاً و تبیاناً فی الرؤیه بین علماء اللغه و المفسرین أما بالخضوع الی قواعد اللغه أو الانصیاع الی ما تفرضه هذه القواعد من احکام ) / and karaa katab legha wa al-tafsir hanak khalta wa tabiana fe ar-rawiya pen alma legha wa al-mafsarin ama balkhadoua alle goade legha oa al-ansaya alle ma tafardah huthe al-qawaaad minn ahkam/ (When reading language books and interpretation, there is confusion and visibility between linguists and interpreters, either by complying with the rules of the language or complying with the rules imposed by these rules) e. (ضروره دراسه هذه الصیغ ببحث مستقل ) / dharoura durasa huthe essig bebhath mustakel/ (These forms should be studied independently) f. (التعارض بین النظرتین الدینیه و اللغویه ) / al-taaredh pen al-nazartin al-deiniye wa laghouia/ (Conflict between religious and linguistic views) g. (اذ حاول اللغویون تأویل هذه الایات لکی تستقیم تفسیراتهم ) / eth hawel leghouion tawil huthe al-ayat lekki ztegim tevsiratham/ (If linguists try to interpret these verses so that their interpretations can be corrected) h. (ضروره البناء فهو یأتی لتأدیه أکثر من وظیفه) / dharoura al-banna fahwa yati latadia akther minn wazifa/ (The need to inflection for it comes to perform more than one function) i. (الاکثر ورودا فی الاستعمال ) / alakther waruda fe alastamal/ (The most commonly used) Again, the researcher will examine the most significant and recurrent examples in this article, i.e. the ones that can be taken as recurrent patterns. To begin with, the clauses in (a) contain the following nominalization instances: (قضیه صرفیه دلالیه ) / qaziyyah sarfiyyah wa dalaliyyah/ (a morphological and semantic issue) In Arabic, all of these instances are nominalized. That is, they are derived from verbs: (قضی) /qaza/ (to judge), (صرّف) /sarrafa/ (to inflect) and (دلّ) /dalla/ (to mean). In this part, these represent a recurrent pattern in Arabic where there are two or three or four nominalization instances that stand in a modifying position to a head noun which is also a nominalization instance. Thus, this is a recurrent pattern, having: (Nominalization (Head) + nominalization (modifier) + nominalization (modifier) + nominalization) In the same example, there is a series of nominalization expressions which enter in modifying relationships. These nominalization instances are preceded by a preposition, constituting a prepositional phrase. This prepositional phrase is also followed by another prepositional phrase. It goes as such: (من دلالات صرفیه و ایحائیه علی وفق رؤیه علماء اللغه) / min delalat sarfiyyah wa iyha'yyah 'ala wifq ru'ayah 'ulamma al-lughah/ (and the resulting morphological and suggestive connotations according to the linguists' views) This leads to a recurrent pattern: (Nominalization (Head) + nominalization (modifier) + conjunction + nominalization (modifier) + preposition + nominalization + Construct) Another recurrent pattern regarding Arabic nominalization patterns is exemplified in (m) above which is:(الاکثر ورودا فی الاستعمال ) / alakther warudan fil ilisti?mal/ (The most commonly used). This pattern is: (Nominalization (comparative) + nominalization + preposition + nominalization) In this one, there is a nominal instance modified by the comparative item (الاکثر) (the most) following a prepositional phrase. 4. Communicative and digital communication approach to cultural diversity and domination by Sundus Sarhan Ahmed (2019) In this paper, the most recurrent nominalization expressions include the following: a. (لا شّک بأنّ النمو المتزاید للثوره التکنلوجیه الرقمیه التی شهدها العالم ... أدی الی خلق منافسات و تحدیات کبیره خاصه فی مجال الاعلام و الاتصال ) / la sheka baan al-namu almetzaid lathoura al-takanlughia rukmiyya alti shahdha alalem ... ada alle khalaq manafsat wa tahdiat kabira khassa fe majal laalam wa alatsal / (There is no doubt that the growing digital technological revolution that the world has witnessed ... Led to the creation of great competitions and challenges, especially in the field of media and communication) b. (أدت هذه الثوره المعلوماتیه الی تغییر الکثیر من عادات و سلوکیات الافراد و اسلوب معیشتهم ) / adat huthe al-thawrah maaloumatia alle teggier al-kathir minn adat wa slokiat al-afrad wa asloub maishtham/ (This information revolution has changed many of the habits and behaviors of individuals and their way of life ) c. (بدأ یفرض نفسه علی الساحه الاعلامیه و الصحفیه و ذلک بفضل الشبکه العنکبوتیه العالمیه ... من الخدمه الصحفیه و الاعلامیه بقوالب الکترونیه ) / badaa yefred nafsa ola sahaha al-alamiye wa sahfia wa delk bafdal shabakah ankabutiyya al-alamia ... minn al-khudma sahfia wa al-alamiye bakhoualeb chatronia / (He started to impose himself on the media and journalistic scene thanks to the world wide web... from the press and media service with electronic templates) d. (ان الاتصال الرقمی و استخداماته فی التدفق الهائل للمعلومات یفتح أفاقاً واسعه للتعرف علی استخدامات جدیده له ) / an alatsal al-raqmi wa estekhedamate fe al-tadfaq al-haeel lamalomat yefteh afaka wasia leltarv ola estekhedamat godida leh/ (Digital communication and its uses in the massive flow of information open up a wide horizon to learn about new uses for it) e. (و قد أدی ذلک الی حدوث تحوّل فی التوجه نحو قنوات الوسائط المطبوعه ) / wa qud ada delk alle hadouth thol fe al-touja naho kanavat lousait motaboua/ (This has led to a shift in the trend towards print media channels) f. (... فی تفاعل الافراد مع محیطهم و تعزیز ثقافتهم و بناء شخصیتهم ) / fe tefaal al-afrad ma muhaytahm wa taaziz saqaftaham wa banaa shechesithem/ (In the interaction of individuals with their surroundings and strengthening their culture and building their personality In this article, the above selected instances have patterns that are referred to in the previous analyzed instances. In (f), the nominal construction (ثقافتهم) has its head as (ثقافه) \thaqafeh\ (culture) which is set in the pattern of (فعاله) \ fa'aalah\. Generally, it reflects spiritual features (Al-Maliki,2020,p. 11). As for (بناء), it is in the pattern (فعال) \fia'al\. It refers to the construction of something whether it is spiritual or material. However, there is one pattern which is not referred to above. It is: (demonstrative + nominalization (Head) + nominalization (modifier) + preposition+ nominalization + Nominalization Group (object)+ Construct) This pattern is exemplified in ( b) above. 5. Dialectic of desire and aggressiveness of Umru Al-Qays 's Mu'allaqa Poetry by Mu'ayyad Mohammad Al-Yuzbaki (2009) After going through the introduction section of this paper, there are recurrent instances of nominalized expressions including the following: a. (یتناول هذا البحث ... من خلال منهج تحلیلی نفسی معاصر, و تولیفه ضروریه من امکانات منهجیه متعدده) /yatnaul hudha al-bahth ... minn khallal munahij tahleli nafsi moasir, wa tolefa dururia minn emkanat monhjia metedda/ (This paper deals with … via a modern psychological analytical model, a necessary combination of multiple methodological possibilities) b. (رصد البحث ... تطور مفهوم الرغبه من مستوی اللذه و الاشباع البایلوجی الی المستوی الوجودی الانسانی ) / rassad al-bahth ... tetour mafhoum al-raghba minn mastoua al-ladha wa al-ashbaa al-bailuji alle el-mestawi al-wagudi al-ansani/ (This research explores ... the concept of desire which has evolved from the level of pleasure and biological satisfaction to the human existential level) c. (یبقی النص الشعری القدیم مشروعا خصبا للتأویل ... فی ضوء ما یتوفر لها من کشوفات فی حقول المعرفه ... و یستمد هذا النص خصوبته من عناصر بنیته التکوینیه ) / yibki al-nas al-shaari al-qudim mishroua khasba latauil ... fe doua ma yetover laha minn koshovat fe hagol al-marfa ... wa yestmed hudha al-nas khasubateh minn anasser benite al-taquina / (The old poetic text remains a fertile project of interpretation... In light of the disclosures available to them in the fields of knowledge ... This text derives its fertility from elements of its formative structure) d. (وهو فضاء لا یمکن استکناه محموله من الرؤی و التصورات دون حدس عمیق للبؤره المولده للنص و دون الاحاطه ... بمرجعیه النص الخارجیه التی یقتضیها تفسیر بعض غوامضه ) / waho fadaa la yamken estecnah mahmula minn al-rua wa al-tasurat donne hadas omaik laboura al-molda lalans wa donne allahata ... bamarjaia al-nas al-kharijiya alti yaktadiha tafsir baad goamdeh/ (It is a space that cannot be based on visions and perceptions without a deep intuition of the focus generating the text without being surrounded... With the external reference of the text required by the interpretation of some of its vague features) e. (التی یجترح فیها وجودا شعریا یستمد مکوناته من مرجعیه تجربته الحیاتیه الواقعیه ) / alti yegtre feha wojoda sharia yestmed mukonatihi minn marjaia tegarbatah al-hayyatia al-waqia/ (In which he is a poetic presence that derives its components from the reference of his real-life experience) f. (لا یساور المتأمل فی تفاصیل هذا الوجود الشعری الشک ... ) / la yessaur al-mutamil fe tafasil hudha al-wajud al-shaari shak/ (The meditator has no doubt about the details of this poetic existence.) g. (ما تحتمله صوره او لوحاته من توتر و انفعالات حاده ) / ma thatmeleh sore ou lohate minn totter wa anfaalat hadda/ (The tension and intense emotions that are implicated in his pictures or paintings) h. (الا حاله مستمره من الاحباط استلبت من الشاعر ثقته بقدرته علی صیاغه فلسفه خاصه ) / al-a hala mostamra minn al-ahbat ustlebt minn shaer sekateh bekderta ola seyaga falasfa khassa/ (But a constant state of frustration has inspired the poet to trust his ability to formulate a special philosophy) What is significant in this article is the nominalization occurrences in (b) above. It reads as follows: a. (رصد البحث ... تطور مفهوم الرغبه من مستوی اللذه و الاشباع البایلوجی الی المستوی الوجودی الانسانی ) / rassad al-bahth ... taDawwur mafhoum al-raghba min mustawa al-ladha wa al-ashbaa al-bailuji alle el-mestawi al-wagudi al-ansani/ (This research explores ... the concept of desire which has evolved from the level of pleasure and biological satisfaction to the human existential level) The nominalization instances start from the head nominal expression (تطور) /taDawwur/ (development) up to the end where the nominal expression (الانسانی) /al-insani/ (human). The nominal (تطور) \tadwwur\ (development) is set in the pattern (تفعل) where the penultimate is geminated. It gives the functions of transformation becoming, endurance and so on. Here, it refers to a change from the state of pleasure into the state of human existence ( Al-Maliki,2020, p.176). This pattern can be stated as follows: (nominalization + Construct + preposition + Construct + conjunction + Construct + preposition + Construct) 6. Justice and tolerance in the Quranic discourse: Yunus's da'wah as an example by Ma'alim Salim Yunus (2019) In this paper, the researcher also made heavy use of nominal constructions. The most recurrent ones include the following: a. (معنی الخطاب الدعوی و معنی العدل و التسامح فی الخطاب الدعوی القرانی ) / moana khattab al-dawi wa moana al-adl wa al-tasameh fe khattab al-dawi karani/ (The meaning of the da'wa speech and the meaning of justice and tolerance in the Qur'anic da'wa speech) b. (کان لزاما علینا معرفه ماهیه الخطاب الدعوی ... استعدادا لحمل لواء الدعوه) / kana lizaman alina maarafa mahia khattab al-dawi ... astadada lahmal lawaa al-dawa/ ( We had to know what the Da'wa discourse was... in preparation for the advocacy campaign) c. (و احتوی علی مطالب هی العدل فی اللغه و التسامح ) / wa ehtawa ola mutaleb he al-adl fe legha wa al-tasameh/ (And it contained demands which are justice in language and tolerance) d. (فکان فی دعوه یونس انموذجا ) / fakan fe dawa jons anmozjan/ ( it was Younis's da'wa as a model) e. (و من هذا المنطلق و رغبه فی خدمه هذه الدعوه المبارکه ) / wa minn hadha montaliq wa raghba fe khadma huthe al-dawa al-mabarka/ ( And from this point of view and a desire to serve this blessed da'wa…) f. (کانت الدعوه الی الله من اجل انقاذ البشریه من ظلمات الکفر و الضلال) / kant al-dawa alle alleh minn agel ingad al-bashriya minn zalmat al-kafar wa al-dhallal/ (It was the call to God to save humanity from the darkness of disbelief and astray) g. (اتباع الانبیاء القائمین بمهامهم بعد انقضاء عهد الدعوه) / atbaa al-anbaya gaemin bamhamham baad angada ahed al-dawa/ ( the vassals of the prophets who are in charge of their duties after the end of the covenant of da'wa) h. (القران الکریم هو اعظم هبه وهبها الله لهذه الامه) / al-qaran al-karim ho azam heba ohebha alleh lahadhe alama/ (The Holy Quran is the greatest gift God has given to this nation) The same iterating nominalization instances are employed in this article. What is new here is the following recurrent pattern, which is exemplified in the following: a. (معنی الخطاب الدعوی و معنی العدل و التسامح فی الخطاب الدعوی القرانی ) / moana khattab al-dawi wa moana al-adl wa al-tasameh fe khattab al-dawi karani/ (The meaning of the da'wa speech and the meaning of justice and tolerance in the Qur'anic da'wa speech) Arabic is a language which deploys nominal clauses extensively where it attempts to reflect facts and frequent actions. In (a) above, the pattern to be stated reads as follows: (nominalization + Construct + conjunction + Construct + conjunction nominalization + prepositional phrase) In this example, we have two nominal constructs coordinated. These are: (معنی العدل والتسامح) + (معنی الخطاب الدعوی) (The meaning of juistice and forgiveness)+(The meaning of advocacy discourse) In the first construct, the head noun (معنی) (meaning) is in a construct relationship with (الخطاب) (discourse), which is modified by the nominal item (الدعوی). This modifying item is taken from the verbal noun (الدعوه) ( advocacy or invitation) where verb is (دعا) (to advocate or to invite). In the second construct, the head noun (معنی) (meaning) is in a construct relationship with two nominalized items (العدل) (justice) and (التسامح) (forgiveness). Interestingly, these two construct relationships are post modified by the prepositional phrase: (in the Quranic advocacy discourse) (فی الخطاب الدعوی القرانی) where the head noun (الخطاب) (discourse) is modified by the nominal (الدعوی) (advocative) and (القرانی) (Quranic). 7. Key words in the Iraqi university dissertations in the field of information and libraries and their roles in retrieving information by Huda Salman Sabbar (2021) The introduction section of this paper includes a variety of nominal constructions. The following are the most significant ones: a. ( باعتبارها الرکیزه الاساسیه للبحث العلمی مما یتطلب دراسه و تحلیل محتویاها الموضوعیه و التعبیر عنها بمصطلحات او کلمات مفتاحیه تساعد المستفیدین فی التعرف علیها و استثمارها بشکل یحقق الهدف من إعدادها ) / bi?tbaraha al-rakiza al-asasiya labahath alami memma wittlep durasa wa tahlel mehtoyaha al-modhouaia wa al-tabir anha bemstalat ou kelmat meftahiye tsaad al-mestvidin fe al-taraf aliha wa istithmarha bishkel yuhakiqu al-hadf minn iadadha / (As the main pillar of scientific research, it requires studying and analyzing its objective content and expressing it in terms or key words that help the beneficiaries to identify them and invest it in a way that achieves the goal of preparing them) b. (التعرف علی نسبه استخدام الرسائل الجامعیه مقارنه بمصادر المعلومات الاخری ) / al-taraf ola nasba estekhdam al-rasael al-jamaia mekarne bamsadir maaloumat al-akhra/ ( Identify the percentage of use of university messages compared to other sources of information c. (التعرف علی مدی توفر الکلمات المفتاحیه فی مجال المعلومات و المکتبات ) / al-taraf ola meda tover kilmat al-miftahia fe majal maaloumat wa al-maktabat/ (we will learn about the availability of keywords in information and libraries) In this article, there are nominalization instances to be highlighted, out of which patterns can be stated. For example, in (a), there is the following nominalization group: (باعتبارها الرکیزه الاساسیه للبحث العلمی) / bi?tbaraha al-rakiza al-asasiya lilbahath ?alami/ (As the main pillar of scientific research) Here, the first nominalization instance has a finiteness implication in the sense that this nominalization (باعتبارها) / bi?tbaraha/ (as) governs an object which is the nominal group (الرکیزه الاساسیه) / al-rakiza al-asasiya/ (the main pillar). That is, this nominalization has the same force of finiteness as its verb (یعتبر) /yu?tabar) (to regard). The pattern can be stated as: (preposition + nominalization + Construct (object nominalization) + prepositional phrase) This nominalization instance starts with a prepositional phrase (بأعتبارها ) where the nominal item (اعتبار) \'atia'bar\ (consideration) is set in the nominal pattern (افتعال) \'aftia'aal\. It is derved from verbs of the form (افتعل) \'aftaa'ala\ and here (اعتبر) \'atabarar\ (to consider). Such pattern can display certain semantic functions including requesting and hard working, participation, exaggeration and intensification, and familiarization and taking things into consideration. In this example, the nominal instance of (اعتبار) (to consider) goes within the latter function, i.e. to take into consideration (Al-Maliki,2020,p.173). The second nominal instance here is (الرکیزه) \alrakiza\ (basis) which is in the pattern (فعیله) \fa'ailah\. The functions that can be displayed by this pattern include intimacy, flexibility, accompaniment and following (Al-Maliki,2020,p,101). The most related one in this example is the function of ''accompaniment''. Being the basis of something means there are other things related to this basis. The nominal item (الاساسیه) \'al'asassiyah\ (the basic) is verbal noun which ends in (-یه) whose function is modification of the preceding nominal (الرکیزه). The nominal group (البحث العلمی) is set within a prepositional (اللام). The nominal (البحث) (research) is in the pattern (فعل) \fa'al\. Such patterns include certain functions such as a pain, a disease (both spiritual or material, defect, joyfulness or sadness, awe, emptiness and fullness, behavior, amovement or activity, and what not. Out of the above analyses, one can show that Arabic has a variety of nominalization patterns that are not available in English. In addition to that, it can be proved that nominalization can have a finiteness effect. Chapter Five Conclusions 5.1 Conclusions All Arabic grammar books assert that Arabic has a certain type of discourse which is the use of the Topic-Comment word order (e.g. Abu Chacra & Abu Chacra 2007, p.32). This is employed instead of the subject-predicate relationship. This adds to the characterization of Arabic rhetoric, which reflects the writer's comment in relation to the nominalized clause. This is highly expected in Arabic because one of its basic word order types is SVO, which is manifested in nominal clauses. Thus, in Arabic, writers tend to express their thoughts and feelings via nominal clauses, a case which has its own semantic and cognitive terms. This choice is partially evoked by the grammatical constraints. The semantic consequences, however, are more grave than meets the eye. According to Langacker (1987:90), it has been shown that nominalizing a verb necessarily lavishes conceptual properties characteristic of nouns (1987:90). Changing a clause into a nominal construction requires that the event being described is viewed as a “thing” or a “fact,” rather than an event. In a nominal clause, the event is seen as an active event anymore, but it is treated as a “state.” It means that in a nominalized clause, there is some kind of objectification on the part of the event being nominalized as suggested by Brown and Levinson (1987 [ 1978]). It was Whorf (1956) who highlighted the notion of “fashions of speaking” to represent systematic grammatical distinctions. The nominal predicate clause in Arabic can define and reinforce some conventional ways of thinking. The high frequency of nominalization in Arabic with its resultant “rhetoric of commentation” to express different rhetorical messages to varying arrangements of significance and intensity. As far as the research questions in this study are concerned, out of the analyses done, it has been found out that there is a big difference between English and Arabic in terms of the introduction sections in their RAs in the sense that academic Arabic writers tend to make heavy use of nominalization instances. This is basically because Arabic is a language which has nominal sentences as one of the basic word order types. Facts and repeated actions that do not undergo changes in Arabic are manifested via deploying nominal constructions. Thus, Arabic uses nominalization instances much more than English. In relation to the second research questions which concerns the nominalization patterns. In English, the researcher could not arrive at more than the six nominalization patterns that are used in analyzing nominalization expressions in the previous studies. However, in Arabic, there appears new patterns that are not available in the English ones. For instance, there are patterns like the following: As for the last research question, it is related to claims of knowledge adopted in the use of nominalization in the introduction section in both languages. In the introduction section, researchers tend to provide sound backgrounds for their studies. Thus, it is important to claim knowledge bases in these sections. As for Arabic, the use of nominalization instances reflect sound backgrounds as such instances can show truthful things and facts that do not undergo changes. It is highly expected for Arabic writers to adopt nominal instances to provide sound bases in their studies. In addition, stating the specific objectives is also deployed in the introduction section. Thus, using nominalization expressions can be used to reflect such objectives. Limitations of the study This study addresses the patterns, use and functions of nominalization in English and Arabic as manifested in the introduction sections of English and Arabic research articles. As for the English side, the researcher has not detailed the notion of nominalization since it is adequately dealt with by other researchers. What is highlighted here is the patterns arrived at from previous literature and adding the ones that are not discovered. This is also done for the sake of comparing them with the Arabic ones. In dealing with nominalization in Arabic it has been found out that there are patterns that are not available in English, a case which needs to be attended to. 5.3 Implications of the study The findings of this study are highly important in enriching the field of discourse analysis in general and the notion of nominalization in particular. Building on the findings of Arabic nominalization processes and instances, it has been proved that finiteness is not a characteristic of finite verbs only, a case which should be focused upon. Thus, these findings should be reviewed in subsequent research to prove the validity of this finding so that it can be applied in the practice and theory of general linguistics and pragmatics. 1.4 Suggestions for further research Drawing upon the results and conclusions of this study, further studies can be conducted in the analysis of English and Arabic texts whether literary or political ones as well as other text types. The findings of this study represent a good repertoire of conducting a study in the field of translation across the two languages English and Arabic. Another possibility for further research in this regrad is conducting a study in the area of transitivity system across the two languages to see how English and Arabic are similar or different in this regard, Finally and significantly, revisiting the notion of finiteness and nominalization is a must indeed. |
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